Notes
1 The White House, “Fact Sheet: President Biden’s Leaders Summit on Climate,” April 23, 2021.
2 Emergent, “Leaf Coalition Mobilizes $1 Billion for Tropical Forest Conservation,” May 3, 2022.
3 Shane Coffield and James Randerson, “Satellites Detect No Real Climate Benefit from 10 Years of Forest Carbon Offsets in California,” The Conversation, December 1, 2022; Kate Dooley et al., “Carbon Removals from Nature Restoration Are No Substitute for Steep Emission Reductions,” One Earth, vol. 5, no. 7, 2022; Thales A. P. West et al., “Overstated Carbon Emission Reductions from Voluntary REDD+ Projects in the Brazilian Amazon,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 117, no. 39, 2020.
4 Amazon Watch, “The Amazon Rainforest-Sized Loophole in Net Zero,” October 20, 2021.
5 Kathryn Baragwanath and Ella Bayi, “Collective Property Rights Reduce Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 117, no. 34, 2020; Jocelyne S. Sze et al. “Reduced Deforestation and Degradation in Indigenous Lands Pan-Tropically,” Nature Sustainability, vol. 5, no. 2, 2021.
6 Amazon Watch, “Investing in Amazon Crude II,” June 3, 2021.
7 Amazon Watch, “Banking on Amazon Destruction,” November 4, 2021.
8 Vincent Ricci, “A Year After Ecuador Oil Spill, Indigenous Victims Await Justice, Reparations,” Mongabay, April 29, 2021.
9 Andrew Wasley and Alexandra Heal, “Walmart Selling Beef from Firm Linked to Amazon Deforestation,” The Guardian, February 13, 2021.
10 Thomas Day et al. “Corporate Climate Responsibility Monitor 2022,” NewClimate Institute, February 7, 2022.
11 Prerana Bhat, “Carbon Needs to Cost at Least $100/Tonne Now to Reach Net Zero by 2050: Reuters Poll,” Reuters, October 25, 2021.
12 Tamra Gilbertson, “Carbon Pricing: A Critical Perspective for Community Resistance,” Indigenous Environmental Network and Climate Justice Alliance, November 2017.
13 Lisa Song, “Cap and Trade Is Supposed to Solve Climate Change, but Oil and Gas Company Emissions Are Up,” ProPublica, November 15, 2019.
14 Jocelyn Timperley, “The Broken $100-Billion Promise of Climate Finance—and How to Fix It,” Nature, October 20, 2021.
15 Chloé Farand, “‘Betrayal’: US Approves Just $1bn Climate Finance for Developing Countries in 2022,” Climate Home News, March 11, 2022.
16 Jason Hickel, “Quantifying National Responsibility for Climate Breakdown: An Equality-Based Attribution Approach for Carbon Dioxide Emissions in Excess of the Planetary Boundary,” The Lancet Planetary Health, vol. 4, no. 9, 2020.
17 H. Damon Matthews et al., “Temporary Nature-Based Carbon Removal Can Lower Peak Warming in a Well-Below 2° C Scenario,” Communications Earth & Environment, vol. 3, no. 1, 2022.
18 Thiago Chagas et al. “A Close Look at the Quality of REDD+ Carbon Credits,” Climate Focus, March 20, 2020.
19 Architecture for REDD+ Transactions (ART), “The REDD+ Environmental Excellence Standard (TREES),” August 2021.
20 Ibid.
21 James Temple and Lisa Song, “The Climate Solution Actually Adding Millions of Tons of CO2 into the Atmosphere,” MIT Technology Review, April 29, 2021.
22 Architecture for REDD+ Transactions (ART), “The REDD+ Environmental Excellence Standard (TREES).”
23 YouTube, “Leaf Coalition US Leaders Summit Launch Event,” April 23, 2021.
24 Alain Frechette, “Commentary: Reflections on ART-TREES, Jurisdictional REDD+ and Nature-Based Solutions,” Rights and Resources Initiative, October 2021.
25 Ann Danaiya Usher, “Growing Frustration among Indigenous Leaders with Forest Carbon Scheme Leaf,” Development Today, November 3, 2022.
26 Kimberley Brown, “Ecuador’s Top Court Rules for Stronger Land Rights for Indigenous Communities,” Mongabay, February 9, 2022.
27 United Nations Development Programme, “UNDP Social and Environmental Standards,” January 1, 2021.
28 Centro de Derechos Económicos y Sociales (CDES), “Pueblo Shuar Arutam y Salvaguardas Socioambientales,” December 2017.
29 Leila Salazar-López, “Inspiration, Healing, and Resistance from Amazonian Women Defenders!” Amazon Watch, April 12, 2022.
30 Indigenous Environmental Network, “Letter from the Shuar Arutam People to the Country & the World,” June 30, 2021.
31 Argus, “Ecuador Accelerates Oil Opening as Transition Looms,” December 3, 2021.
32 Radio La Calle, “El Estado Ecuatoriano Incumplió Sentencia en el Caso Mecheros,” April 20, 2022.
33 Astrid Arellano, “‘Indigenous People Are Fighting to Protect a Natural Equilibrium’: Q&A with Patricia Gualinga,” translated by Matthew Rose, Mongabay, May 5, 2022.
34 Fred Pearce, “In Tanzania, Carbon Offsets Preserve Forests and a Way of Life,” Grist, June 2, 2022; John Edward Myers et al. “How Carbon Offsetting Can Build a Forest,” Stanford Social Innovation Review, November 9, 2021.
35 myclimate, “Energiapro—Offsetting 100% of Natural Gas Emissions.”
36 Gilles Dufrasne, “Two Shades of Green: How Hot Air Forest Credits Are Being Used to Avoid Carbon Taxes in Colombia,” Carbon Market Watch, June 30, 2021.